saccharide isomerate. Good water-binding agent and emollient for skin. See mucopolysaccharide.

saccharides. See mucopolysaccharide.

Saccharomyces calcium ferment. Extract of yeast fermented in the presence of calcium ions. It has no known benefit for skin.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Saccharomyces, from the Latin, literally means “sugar fungus,” and is the scientific name for the yeasts used in fermentation, specifically baker’s yeast. It is the simplest single-cell organism that operates in a manner similar to human cells and is, therefore, an important organism used in genetic and molecular biology research. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome has been sequenced. There are many versions of this fungus fermented with various compounds. Cosmetic ingredient manufacturers extol this yeast as having significant properties for skin, but there is little independent research supporting its use on skin. However, some extracts of yeast, such as beta-glucan (a potent antioxidant) are derived from yeast (Sources: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, August 15, 1989, pages 6018–6022; and http://www.in-cosmetics.com/ExhibitorLibrary/3/BiodynesO3.pdf).

Saccharomyces copper ferment. Extract of yeast fermented in the presence of copper ions. There is no known benefit for skin, though it may have antioxidant properties.

Saccharomyces iron ferment. Extract of yeast fermented in the presence of iron ions. See Saccharomyces copper ferment.

Saccharomyces lysate. See yeast.

Saccharomyces magnesium ferment. Extract of yeast fermented in the presence of magnesium ions. See Saccharomyces copper ferment.

Saccharomyces manganese ferment. Extract of yeast fermented in the presence of manganese ions. See Saccharomyces copper ferment.

Saccharomyces officinarum ferment. Derived from the sugarcane plant. Glycolic acid is also derived from sugarcane, but sugarcane extract does not have the same exfoliating properties as glycolic acid. There is no research showing that sugarcane extract has any benefit for skin. See AHA.

Saccharomyces potassium ferment. Extract of yeast fermented in the presence of potassium ions. See Saccharomyces copper ferment.

Saccharomyces silicon ferment. Extract of yeast fermented in the presence of silicon ions. See Saccharomyces copper ferment.

Saccharomyces zinc ferment. Extract of yeast fermented in the presence of zinc ions. See Saccharomyces copper ferment.

safflower oil. Emollient plant oil similar to all nonfragrant plant oils. Safflower oil can be an antioxidant when consumed in the diet, but whether it retains this benefit when applied topically to skin is unknown. See natural moisturizing factor (NMF).

sage extract. Extract that can be a potent antioxidant (Source: Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, March 2002, pages 1845–1851). However, its fragrant camphor and phenol components can also cause skin irritation (Source: Clinical Toxicology, December 1981, pages 1485–1498).

salicin. See willow bark.

salicylic acid. Referred to as beta hydroxy acid (BHA), it is a multifunctional ingredient that addresses many of the systemic causes of blemishes (Source: Seminars in Dermatology, December 1990, pages 305–308). For decades dermatologists have been prescribing salicylic acid as an exceedingly effective keratolytic (exfoliant), but it also is an anti-irritant This is because salicylic acid is a derivative of aspirin (both are salicylates—aspirin’s technical name is acetylsalicylic acid), and so it also functions as an anti-inflammatory (Sources: Archives of Internal Medicine, July 2002, pages 1531–1532; Annals of Dermatology and Venereology, January 2002, pages 137–142; Archives of Dermatology, November 2000, pages 1390–1395; and Pain, January 1996, pages 71–82). Another notable aspect of salicylic acid for treating breakouts is that it has antimicrobial properties (Sources: Preservatives for Cosmetics, 1996, by David Steinberg, Allured Publishing; and Health Canada Monograph Category IV, Antiseptic Cleansers, http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/). It is also well documented that salicylic acid can improve skin thickness, barrier functions, and collagen production (Sources: Dermatology, 1999, volume 199, number 1, pages 50–53; and Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, volume 175, issue 1, pages 76–82). As an exfoliant, in concentrations of 8% to 12%, it is effective in wart-remover medications. In concentrations of 0.5% to 2%, it is far more gentle, and, much like AHAs (See AHA), can exfoliate the surface of skin. In addition, BHA has the ability to penetrate into the pore (AHAs do not), and thus can exfoliate inside the pore as well as on the surface of the skin, which makes it effective for reducing blemishes, including blackheads and whiteheads.

Salix alba extract. See willow bark.

Salvia officinalis. See sage extract.

Sambucus canadensis. See elderberry.

Sambucus cerulea. Blue elderberry. May have antioxidant properties for skin (Source: Phytotherapy Research, February 2002, pages 63–65). See elderberry.

Sambucus nigra. See black elderberry.

sandalwood oil. Fragrant oil that can cause skin irritation or allergic reactions (Source: American Journal of Contact Dermatitis, June 1996, pages 77–83). There is one animal study showing it to have antitumor properties (Source: European Journal of Cancer Prevention, October 1999, pages 449–455).

Santalum album seed extract. Latin name for sandalwood extract, which is used in cosmetics as a fragrance. It can have antioxidant properties and there is research showing it minimizes herpes breakouts. It also can be a skin irritant or sensitizer (Sources: Journal of Ethnopharmacology, July 2000, pages 23–43; and European Journal of Cancer Prevention, August 1997, pages 399–401).

Saponaria officinalis extract. See soapwort.

saponin. Group of natural carbohydrates, found in plants, that have considerable potential as pharmaceutical and/or nutraceutical agents in natural or synthetic form. Saponins, from a variety of sources, have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties (Sources: Fitoterapia, July 2002, page 336; Phytotherapy Research, March 2001, pages 174–176; and Drug Metabolism and Drug Interaction, 2000, volume 17, issue 1-4, pages 211–235).

Sargassum filipendula extract. See algae.

sausurrea oil. Also called costus oil. Volatile oil and fragrant component used in cosmetics; it can be a skin irritant. It is known to cause contact dermatitis (Source: http://www.naturaldatabase.com).

saw palmetto extract. Plant extract that, when taken orally, has been shown in short-term trials to be efficacious in reducing the symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (Source: Annals of Internal Medicine, January 2002, pages 42–53). It may have an anti-inflammatory effect on skin, but there is little research to support this. Saw palmetto’s reputation is based primarily on the fact that it can reduce the presence of the male hormone dihydrotestosterone, and so it could theoretically reduce hair loss, but this effect has not been proven. There is anecdotal information that it can also have estrogenic effects; but not only is that unlikely, it is also highly improbable that it could have such effects when applied topically (Source: Healthnotes Review of Complementary and Integrative Medicine, http://www.healthwell.com/healthnotes/Herb/Saw_Palmetto.cfm).

Saxifraga sarmentosa extract. See strawberry begonia.

sclareolide. Fermented from clary sage and used as a fragrant component in cosmetics.

sclerotium gum. Used as a thickening agent in cosmetics.

Scutellaria baicalensis extract. See skullcap extract.

sd alcohol. See alcohol.

sd alcohol 40-2. Denatured alcohol used as a solvent. It can be drying and irritating to skin when one of the main ingredients in a cosmetic product. Lesser amounts are not cause for concern. See alcohol.

Sea buckthorn. Berry extract that grows on a shrub-like tree. Sea buckthorn is believed to have several topical benefits, but the research to support such claims is lacking (Source: http://www.naturaldatabase.com). More convincing is the research pertaining to sea buckthorn’s ability to help skin heal when administered to wound sites, and it does appear to have some antioxidant ability (Sources: The International Journal of Lower Extremity Wounds, June 2005, pages 88–92; and Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, October 2006, pages 821–831).

sea salt. Can be effective as a topical scrub, but if left on skin it can increase skin sensitivity to UVB radiation (Source: Der Hautarzt, June 1998, pages 482–486).

sea whip extract. Extract from a creature that inhabits coral reefs, known for its anti-inflammatory properties (Source: Life Sciences, May 22, 1998, pages 401–407) and antibacterial properties (Source: Journal of Natural Products, January 2001, pages 100–102).

Seamollient. Trade name for an algae extract. See algae.

seaweed. Group of sea plants (scientific name: algae) of all sizes and shapes, and having a gelatin-like consistency. Many seaweeds have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, but many other claims of benefits are not proven. See algae.

sebacic acid. Used as a pH adjuster.

selenium. Mineral considered to be a potent antioxidant (Source: Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy, June 2002, pages 173–178). See antioxidant.

self-heal. Plant that has antihistamine, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antioxidant properties when taken orally (Sources: Life Sciences, January 2000, pages 725–735; Planta Medica, May 2000, pages 358–360; and Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, August 2001, pages 423–435). However, there is no research demonstrating this has any benefit for skin when applied topically.

Serenoa serrulata extract. See saw palmetto.

sericin. Scientific name for silk protein. See silk protein.

serine. See amino acid.

sesame oil. Emollient oil similar to other nonfragrant plant oils. See natural moisturizing factor (NMF).

Sesamum indicum. See sesame oil.

sesquioleate. Used in cosmetics as a thickening agent and emollient.

Shao-yao. See peony root extract.

shea butter. A plant lipid that is used as an emollient in cosmetics. See natural moisturizing factor (NMF).

Siegesbeckia orientalis. Chinese herb (also known as St. Paul’s wort) for which there is no research showing that it has any benefit for skin.

silica. Mineral found abundantly in sandstone, clay, and granite, as well as in parts of plants and animals. It is the principal ingredient of glass. In cosmetics it is used as an absorbent powder and thickening agent.

silica dimethyl silylate. Used as a slip and suspending agent. See silica and silicone.

silicate. Inorganic salt that has potent absorbing and thickening properties.

silicone. Substance derived from silica (sand is a silica). The unique fluid properties of silicone give it a great deal of slip, and in its various forms it can feel like silk on the skin, impart emolliency, and be a water-binding agent that holds up well, even when skin becomes wet. In other forms, it is also used extensively for wound healing and for improving the appearance of scars (Source: Journal of Wound Care, July 2000, pages 319–324).

silk. See silk protein.

silk powder. Synthetically derived powder used as an absorbent and slip agent. See slip agent.

silk protein. Protein substance (also called sericin) formed by converting silk, which is the soft, lustrous thread obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm. Silk protein can have water-binding properties for skin. However, whether the protein applied to skin is derived from animals or plants, the skin can’t tell the difference. There is a small amount of research showing silk protein may have topical antioxidant properties (Source: Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, January 1998, pages 145–147).

siloxane. See silicone.

silver. Metallic element that in cosmetics can have disinfecting properties; however, prolonged contact can turn skin grayish blue. Silver can be irritating to skin, and can cause silver toxicity (Sources: Annals of Dermatology and Venereology, February 2002, pages 217–219; and Critical Reviews in Toxicology, May 1996, pages 255–260). See silver sulfadiazine.

silver chloride. See silver sulfadiazine.

silver sulfadiazine. Can be effective for wound healing (Source: Journal of Vascular Surgery, August 1992, pages 251–257). However, it is safe for skin only for short-term use because silver can penetrate abraded skin and cause silver toxicity (Source: Clinical Chemistry, February 1997, pages 290–301).

silver tip white tea leaf extract. See green tea and white tea leaf extract.

Silybum marianum extract. See lady’s thistle extract.

simethicone. Mixture of dimethicone with silica; related to silicones, but used as an antifoaming agent.

skin respiratory factor. See tissue respiratory factor.

Skin-identical ingredient. See intercellular matrix and Chapter Two, Healthy Skin: Rules to Live By.

skullcap extract. Herbal extract from Scutellaria baicalensis that has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties for skin (Source: Life Sciences, January 2002, pages 1023–1033).

slip agent. Term used to describe a range of ingredients that help other ingredients spread over the skin and penetrate into the skin. Slip agents also have humectant properties. Slip agents include propylene glycol, butylene glycol, polysorbates, and glycerin, to name a few. They are as basic to the world of skin care as water.

slippery elm bark. Can be an anti-irritant and anti-inflammatory.

soap. True “soaps” are regulated by the Consumer Product Safety Commission and are not required to list their ingredients on the label. They are made up solely of fats and alkali. Many bar cleansers are not soaps, but contain synthetic detergent cleansing agents and various thickening agents that keep the bar in its bar form. Most soaps are considered very drying and potentially irritating for skin due to their alkaline base (i.e., a pH over 8). Bar cleansers can be more gentle than bar soaps, but are more often than not still drying, depending on their composition (Sources: Cutis, December 2001, pages 12–19; Archives of Dermatologic Research, June 2001, pages 308–318; and Dermatologic Clinics, October 2000, pages 561–575).

soapwort. Plant from which is derived an extract with detergent cleansing properties. There is some research showing it has antiviral and antibacterial properties (Sources: Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, May 1997, pages 129–132; and Phytotherapy Research, 1990, volume 4, pages 97–100).

sodium acrylate/acryloydimethyl taurate copolymer. Synthetic polymer used as a stabilizing and suspending agent and as a thickening agent.

sodium ascorbate. See ascorbic acid.

sodium benzoate. Salt of benzoic acid used as a preservative. See preservatives.

sodium bisulfite. Used in acid-type permanent waves to alter the shape of hair. It is less damaging than alkaline permanent waves, but also has limitations regarding how much change it can effect in hair. It can be a skin irritant.

sodium borate. See borate.

sodium C14-16 olefin sulfate. Can be derived from coconut. Used primarily as a detergent cleansing agent, but is potentially drying and irritating for skin. See surfactant.

sodium carbonate. Absorbent salt used in cosmetics; it can also be a skin irritant.

sodium chloride. More popularly known as common table salt. Used primarily as a binding agent in skin-care products and occasionally as an abrasive in scrub products.

sodium chondroitin sulfate. Derived from natural mucopolysaccharides, it functions as a skin-conditioning agent and helps reinforce skin’s intercellular matrix.

sodium citrate. Used primarily to control the pH level of a product, this ingredient also has antioxidant and preservative properties.

sodium cocoate. Used as a cleansing agent primarily in soaps. It can be drying and irritating for skin.

sodium cocoyl isethionate. Derived from coconut, it is a mild detergent cleansing agent. See surfactant.

sodium dehydroacetate. Organic salt used as a preservative. See preservatives.

sodium hexametaphosphate. Salt with multiple functions in cosmetics. It can act as a detergent, an emulsifier, a texturizer, and a preservative that prevents metallic compounds from negatively affecting a product.

sodium hyaluronate. See hyaluronic acid.

sodium hydroxide. Also known as lye, it is a highly alkaline ingredient used in small amounts in cosmetics to modulate the pH of a product. It is also used as a cleansing agent in some cleansers. In higher concentrations it is a significant skin irritant.

sodium hydroxymethylglycinate. Derived from amino acids and used as a skin- and hair-conditioning agent, and to a lesser extent as a preservative.

sodium lactate. Sodium salt of lactic acid. Used primarily as a water-binding and buffering agent (to adjust a product’s pH value).

sodium lactobionate. White, crystalline powder used to synthesize other chemicals. May function as a preservative in skin-care products. There is no research proving this ingredient exfoliates skin.

sodium laureth sulfate. Can be derived from coconut; it is used primarily as a detergent cleansing agent. It is considered gentle and effective. See surfactant and Paula’s article, “Sodium Lauryl Sulfate and Sodium Laureth Sulfate,” at http://www.cosmeticscop.com.

sodium laureth-13 carboxylate. Used primarily as a detergent cleansing agent. Seesurfactant.

sodium lauroamphoacetate. Mild surfactant also used as a lather agent. See surfactant.

sodium lauroyl lactylate. Used as an emulsifier and mild thickening agent in cosmetics. In higher concentrations, it functions as a surfactant. See surfactant.

sodium lauroyl sarcosinate. Surfactant known (and used) for its foam-boosting properties. See surfactant.

sodium lauryl sulfate. There has been a great deal of misinformation circulated on the Internet about sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS). Used primarily as a detergent cleansing agent, SLS can be derived from coconut. Although it is a potent skin irritant it is not toxic or dangerous for skin. In concentrations of 2% to 5%, SLS can cause allergic or sensitizing reactions for many people. It is used as a standard in scientific studies to establish irritancy or sensitizing properties of other ingredients (Sources: European Journal of Dermatology, September–October 2001, pages 416–419; American Journal of Contact Dermatitis, March 2001, pages 28–32; and Skin Pharmacology and Applied Skin Physiology, September–October 2000, pages 246–257). Being a skin irritant, however, is not the same as a link to cancer, which is what erroneous warnings on the Internet are falsely claiming about this ingredient!

According to a Health Canada press release (February 12, 1999, http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/), “A letter has been circulating [on] the Internet which claims that there is a link between cancer and sodium laureth (or lauryl) sulfate (SLS), an ingredient used in [cosmetics]. Health Canada has looked into the matter and has found no scientific evidence to suggest that SLS causes cancer. It has a history of safe use in Canada. Upon further investigation, it was discovered that this e-mail warning is a hoax. The letter is signed by a person at the University of Pennsylvania Health System and includes a phone number. Health Canada contacted the University of Pennsylvania Health System and found that it is not the author of the sodium laureth sulfate warning and does not endorse any link between SLS and cancer. Health Canada considers SLS safe for use in cosmetics. Therefore, you can continue to use cosmetics containing SLS without worry.” Further, according to the American Cancer Society’s Web site (http://www.cancer.org), “Contrary to popular rumors on the Internet, Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) and Sodium Laureth Sulfate (SLES) do not cause cancer. E-mails have been flying through cyberspace claiming SLS [and SLES] causes cancer … and is proven to cause cancer.... [Yet] A search of recognized medical journals yielded no published articles relating this substance to cancer in humans.” See surfactant and Paula’s article, “Sodium Lauryl Sulfate and Sodium Laureth Sulfate,” at http://www.cosmeticscop.com.

sodium metabisulfite. Reducing agent that alters the structure of hair. It can also be used as a preservative in formulations, and can be a skin irritant. However, it can also be an antioxidant (Source: Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, September–October 1999, pages 252–259).

sodium methyl cocoyl taurate. Mild surfactant. See surfactant.

sodium methyl taurate. Mild surfactant. See surfactant.

sodium PCA. PCA (pyrrolidone carboxylic acid) is a natural component of skin that is also a very good water-binding agent. See natural moisturizing factor (NMF).

sodium salicylate. Salt form of salicylic acid (BHA). Because it is not the acid form of salicylate (i.e., salicylic acid), it does not have exfoliating properties.

sodium silicate. Highly alkaline and potentially irritating antiseptic and mineral used in cosmetics (Source: American Journal of Contact Dermatitis, September 2002, pages 133–139).

sodium sulfite. Reducing agent that alters the structure of hair. It can also be used as a preservative in cosmetic formulations, and can be a skin irritant. See reducing agent.

sodium tallowate. Sodium salt of tallow. See tallow.

sodium thioglycolate. See thioglycolate.

sodium trideceth sulfate. See surfactant.

Solanum lycopersicum extract. See tomato extract.

Solanum tuberosum extract. Extract that is potato starch. Used as a thickening agent in cosmetics.

soluble fish collagen. See collagen.

solvent. Describes a large group of ingredients, including water, that are used to dissolve or break down other ingredients. Solvents are also used to degrease skin and to remove sebum.

Sonojell. Trade name for petrolatum. See petrolatum.

sorbic acid. Preservative derived from mountain ash berries or manufactured synthetically. Sorbic acid is used in many products, including several foods and even in contact lens solutions. A study of contact sensitization to preservatives among 514 volunteers with eczema showed that sorbic acid caused a reaction in only 0.6% of participants. In contrast, many other preservatives had much higher rates of negative reactions, upwards of 13.6% (Source: Ceska a Slovenska Farmacie, May 2004, pages 151–156).

sorbitan stearate. Used to thicken and stabilize cosmetic formulations.

sorbitol. Can be created synthetically or derived from natural sources. Similar to glycerin, it is a humectant, thickening agent, and slip agent.

soy extract. Potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent for skin (Sources: Cancer Investigation, 1996, volume 14, number 6, pages 597–608; Skin Pharmacology and Applied Skin Physiology, May–June 2002, pages 175–183; and Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, June 2005, pages 1049–1059). Soy is one of many phyto (i.e., plant) chemicals that are biologically active against free radicals. Polyphenol compounds, such as the catechins found in green tea, also fit this profile. Soy extract’s increased use in anti-aging products is largely due to studies showing that genistein (a component of soy) has a collagen-stimulating effect and that various compounds in soy influence skin thickness and elasticity (Sources: Cosmetics & Toiletries, June 2002, pages 45–50; and Journal of Cosmetic Science, September–October 2004, pages 473–479). Researchers have also looked at Bifidobacterium-fermented soy milk extracts. On mouse skin and in human skin fibroblasts (lab cultured), this bacteria-modified form of soy was shown to stimulate production of hyaluronic acid in skin. This was due to the amount of genistein released during the fermentation process (Sources: Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 2003, pages 108–116; and Photochemistry and Photobiology, May-June 2005, pages 581–587).

Studies performed on mouse skin have shown that topical application of soy milk and other soy compounds has a protective effect against UVB light damage. It is theorized that these benefits will translate to human skin as well, but conclusive evidence has not yet materialized (Sources: Oncology Research, volume 14, numbers 7/8, 2004, pages 387–397; and Photodermatology, Photoimmunology, & Photomedicine, April 2003, page 56).

There is no research showing that soy extract or soy oil has estrogenic effects when applied to skin, as it can when taken orally (Source: International Journal of Toxicology, 2004, volume 23, Supplement 2, pages 23–47). Some companies have asserted that soy can affect hair growth and lighten skin color when applied topically. The single study citing this was done by Johnson & Johnson, the company that sells products claiming to have this effect (Source: Experimental Dermatology, December 2001, pages 405–413).

soy isoflavones. See soy extract.

soy oil. Emollient oil similar to all nonfragrant plant oils. See natural moisturizing factor (NMF) and soy extract.

soy protein. See soy extract.

soya sterol. Form of phytosterol. There is no research showing soy sterols have any estrogenic or antioxidant benefit for skin. See phytosterol.

spearmint oil. Fragrant, volatile oil that can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. See counter-irritant.

SPF. See sun protection factor.

spikenard. Plant that has antibacterial properties for skin.

Spiraea ulmaria. See meadowsweet extract.

spirulina. See algae.

squalane. See natural moisturizing factor (NMF) and squalene.

squalene. Oil derived from shark liver or from plants (usually olives) and sebum. It is a natural component of skin and is a good emollient that has antioxidant and immune-stimulating properties (Sources: Lancet Oncology, October 2000, pages 107–112; and Free Radical Research, April 2002, pages 471–477). See natural moisturizing factor (NMF).

St. John's wort. Contains several components that are toxic on skin in the presence of sunlight (Sources: Planta Medica, February 2002, pages 171–173; and International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, March 2002, pages 221–241). St. John’s wort’s association with improving depression when taken as an oral supplement is unrelated to its topical impact on skin. However, it also has potent antioxidant properties (Source: Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, November 2001, pages 5165–5170).

star anise. See anise.

steapyrium chloride. Antistatic agent used in hair-care products.

stearalkonium chloride. Antistatic ingredient used in hair-care products to control flyaways and aid in helping a brush or comb get through hair.

stearalkonium hectorite. Used as a suspending agent.

stearates. See stearic acid.

stearic acid. Fatty acid used as an emollient and as an agent to help keep other ingredients intact in a formulation. See fatty acid and thickening agent.

stearyl alcohol. Fatty alcohol used as an emollient and to help keep other ingredients intact in a formulation. See fatty alcohol.

stearyl methicone. Silicone polymer used as a skin-conditioning or occlusive agent. See silicone.

strawberry begonia. There is no research showing this has any benefit for skin.

styrax benzoin. See benzoin extract.

styrene/acrylates copolymer. Synthetic polymer. See film-forming agent.

subtilisin. Protease enzyme obtained from the fermentation of Bacillus subtilis. See proteases.

sucrose. Monosaccharide that has water-binding properties for skin. See mucopolysaccharide and water-binding agent.

sugarcane extract. Ingredients like sugarcane extract, fruit extracts, mixed fruit extracts, and milk solids may claim an association with AHAs, but they are not the same thing nor do they have the same beneficial effect on skin. While glycolic acid can indeed be derived from sugarcane, if you assume that sugarcane will net you the same result as glycolic acid, that would be like assuming you could write on a tree the way you can write on paper. Wood is certainly where paper begins, but paper wouldn’t exist if the wood didn’t undergo complex mechanical and chemical processes. Similarly, the original forms of these extracts do not have the same effect as the ingredients that are derived from them. The same is true for lactic acid, derived from milk. If milk were as acidic as lactic acid, you would not be able to drink it without serious complications. There is a vast difference between the extracted, pure ingredient and the original form of the source material. See AHA.

sulfur. Antibacterial agent (Source: Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, October 2001, pages 282–286) that can be a potent skin irritant and sensitizer. Sulfur also has a high pH, which can encourage the growth of bacteria on skin.

sun protection factor. Most commonly seen as SPF, it is a number that is assigned to a product that identifies its ability to protect the skin from sunburn or to protect the skin from turning pink or red when exposed to sun. SPF numbering is regulated by the FDA, and is a measure of the amount of time a person can stay in the sun without getting burned if a sunscreen is applied. Because sunburn results from UVB radiation, not UVA radiation, SPF is primarily a measure of UVB protection. At this time, there is no numbering system to indicate the level of protection a sunscreen can provide from UVA radiation, which affects the deeper layers of skin. See sunscreens and UVA.

sunflower oil. Non-volatile plant oil used as an emollient in cosmetics.

sunscreens. Products considered over-the-counter drugs in the United States and as such are strictly regulated by the FDA. Sunscreens provide protection from sunburn and some amount of sun damage. There is a great deal of confusion regarding the efficacy and use of sunscreens. The FDA instituted new regulations that were supposed to take effect in 2002, but most of them did not come into play because the FDA’s Final Sunscreen Monograph was, for various reasons, never officially updated. According to the FDA’s July–August 2002 issue of Consumer magazine, “Under the new regulations manufacturers will no longer be allowed to [use] … confusing terms such as ‘sunblock,’ ‘waterproof,’ ‘all-day protection,’ and ‘visible and/or infrared light protection’ on these [sunscreen] products. In addition to these changes … tanning preparations that do not contain a sunscreen ingredient [are required] to display the following warning: ‘Warning: This product does not contain a sunscreen and does not protect against sunburn. Repeated exposure of unprotected skin while tanning may increase the risk of skin aging, skin cancer, and other harmful effects to the skin even if you do not burn.

“To figure out how much protection a sunscreen provides, most consumers turn to a simple number: the SPF, or sun protection factor, listed on the label. Studies show that most consumers understand that the higher the number, the more the product protects the skin.”

The FDA then goes on to say: “Unfortunately, studies also show that people often have the mistaken notion that the higher the SPF number of the sunscreen they use, the longer they can stay—and will stay—in the sun.… Sunscreen should not be used to prolong time spent in the sun. Even with a sunscreen, you are not going to prevent all the possible damage from the sun. Some of the newer research in the last several years shows that [for] the sub-erythemal doses [exposure to the sun that does not cause reddening of the skin], as little as one-tenth the energy needed to get a sunburn, starts the process of skin damage of one sort or another.

“The public under-applies sunscreens by as much as half of the recommended amount, concluded a study published in the Archives of Dermatology. Consequently, the study argued, consumers are receiving only half of the SPF protection they believe the product provides.” The issue of liberal application has been confirmed in other research as well (Source: Photochemistry and Photobiology, July 2001, pages 61–63). See sun protection factor and UVA.

superoxide dismutase. Enzyme considered to be a potent antioxidant in humans (Sources: Journal of Investigative Dermatology, April 2002, pages 618–625; Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B, October 2001, pages 61–69; and European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, August 2001, pages 63–67). See antioxidant.

surfactant. Shortened term for surface active agent. Surfactants degrease and emulsify oils and fats and suspend soil, allowing them to be washed away, as laundry products do. I refer to these substances throughout my writing as “detergent cleansing agents.” Surfactants and detergent cleansing agents are often used interchangeably by chemists and researchers (Sources: Food and Drug Administration, Office of Cosmetics and Colors Fact Sheet, February 3, 1995, http://www.fda.gov; Dermatology, 1995, volume 191, number 4, pages 276–280; Tenside, Surfactants, Detergents, 1997, volume 34, number 3, pages 156–168; and http://surfactants.net). Surfactants are used in most forms of cleansers and many of them are considered gentle and effective for most skin types. There are several types of surfactants that can be sensitizing, drying, and irritating for skin.

sweet almond oil. Emollient oil. See natural moisturizing factor (NMF).

Symphytum officinale extract. See comfrey extract.

Szechuan peppercorn. From a plant native to Szechuan Province in China. It grows on trees, and so differs from black pepper, which grows on climbing vines. Used extensively in Szechuan cooking, Szechuan pepper is known for the “numbing” sensation it produces on the tongue. It is considered a counter-irritant. See black pepper extract and oil and counter-irritant.